Some Key Points For Literature Reviews

Are you about to analyze a piece of literature? Below are the some key point that you must remember while analyzing any type of literature:

• Historical references / anecdotes used in the literature.
• Religious references in it.
• Geographical elements present in it.
• Contemporary works of that time.
• Time / Period / Age / Era / Century / Movement of that time.
• Literary terms used in it.
• Social issues present in it.
• Psycho-Socio  elements present in it.
• Biographical elements present in it.
• Political interference in it.
• Education of the author.
• Biography of the author.

These are the some key points you must go through with before giving any literature review.

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Properties of Human Language

It is certain that communication is the primary function of human language. It is also certain that all creatures communicate with each other in some ways but the difference is that they are not as advanced in communication as humans are. Like, a dog can not advise to the other dog to lower the sound of its bark. But, humans are surely able to reflex on a language and its uses that comes under the properties of Reflexivity. This Reflexivity helps to talk and think about a language which distinguishes the human languages from other creatures languages. 

 From this Reflexivity which is the general property of the human language, Linguists have successfully identified some other properties of the human language which are :

1. Displacement
2. Arbitrariness
3. Cultural Transmission
4. Productivity
5. Duality

DISPLACEMENT :-

 Human Language can not only be used for present situation but for past and future as well. But, other creatures are only able to communicate for present and right now situations. This is termed as “Displacement”. This feature of a language can only be found in human languages and other creatures are not able to communicate with eachother using this property.

If a cat is saying “meow”. This “meow” is only for immediate time and place and if we ask it that where was it last night? The cat will only say “meow” that can not distinguish its past or present. And, also for future, it will only say “meow”.

If a dog is making a sound “GRRR” for present, it can not change the intensity of the sound “GRRR” for distinguishing the present from past or future. The “GRRR” will remain the same “GRRR”.On the other end, Humans can easily define and distinguish their past, present and future.

Meanwhile, bees communication can be taken as small exeption because it has little bit displacement in it. For example, when a honeybee returns to its beehive after finding some source of nectar, a complex dance routeen is performed by it to communicate with other bees and to make them know about the source of food. But it must be the most recent food source. The food source seen a week ago, bees communication does not have any dance for it. So, although bees communication has some degree of displacement but it is only for the most recent present, neither for past nor for future.

ARBITRARINESS :-

According to linguists, there has been no “natural” connection between a linguistics form and its meaning and the connection is “arbitrary”. For example, the linguistic form “dog” has no iconic or natural connection with that four-legged barking object.  The study of characteristic of relationship between objects in the world and linguistic signs is termed as ARBITRARINESS.

However, “Onomatopoeic” words (Cuckoo, squelch, crash, whirr etc)  show less arbitrary connection.

PRODUCTIVITY :-

Humans having influence of their traitor nature have been manipulating their linguistic resources through creating new communication ways and expressions with respect to time and situations. This adds “Productivity” in the properties of human language.

The productive communicative nature humans have, is not found in communication of any other creature as others are bound to their limited signals of communication. The honeybee can only communicate with eachother in term of horizontally as they don’t have any signal for vertical locations.

For this, scientists place a food source at the top of radio tower with a hive of bees and also place some bees at the bottom of the tower. The bees on the top taste the food and reach to other the bees but fail to identify the location because of not having any signal to identify vertical places.   

This distinguishes the human communication from other creatures as humans can produce new signals or ways of communication from time to time and place to place.

CULTURAL TRANSMISSION :-

It is also an unique property of the humans language. Humans do not inherit language from their parents but culture. A baby born in West Indies but brought up in United States will have physical stature like his West Indian parents but he will speak like his sourrounding in United States. Humans learn their language from their culture and surrounding.

DUALITY :-

 Duality is also a silent feature of property of human language. Humans can produce individual sound like /n/ , /b/, /i/ and they can also produce them collectively as “bin” or “nib”.

While, other creatures have fixed forms of sounds in their communication.

(Source/Reference : The Study of Language, Fourth Edition by George Yule, Cambridge University Press).

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How Poets Define Poetry

• "Poetry is emotion put into measure. The emotion must come by nature,but the measure can be acquised by art." said by Thomas Hardy.

• "If poetry comes not by itself as naturally as the leaves to a tree, it had better not come at all." said by Keats.

• "By heaven and heaven alone,
  The genuine seeds of poesy(poetry) are sown." said by Homer in his Odyssey. 

• "If not asked, I know; If you ask me, I know not." said by St. Augustine.

• "A poet is the painter of the soul." said by Isac. D'Israeli.

• "Poetry is the expression of the imagination" said by Shelly.

• "What is poetry but the thought and words in which emotion spontaneously overflows itself." says Mill.

• "Poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings." said by William Wordsworth..

• "Poetry is nothing else than each poet's innermost feeling issuing in rhythmic language". said by Keble.

• "Poetry is an emotional and metrical appeal to the understanding which awakens in us, is some form, aconsciousness of beauty." said by G.F. Bradby.

• "Poetry is the representation of the ideal." said by Aristotle.

• "Poetry is beautiful veil with which the poets clothe the facts of life". said by Thackery.

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Black Death or Bubonic Plague

If it is talked about the most deadly plagues, the Black Death must be listed in top ones. This is also called as Bubonic Plague. In human history, it was the deadliest pandemic due to which a massive quantity of people died. Around 25 million people were killed by this, which was equal to half of the population of Europe that time.

The plague caused by the Yersinia Pestis Bacteria, reached in England in 1348. It was originated in China and came into British Isles through English province of Gascony as it was spread west along the trade routes across Europe. The medium for its expanse was flea-infected rats.

The first victim of this plague was a seaman who had arrived at Weymouth, Dorset from Gascony and within 2 to 3 years, it covered the entire Europe. It is interesting to know that more men were killed in this plague.

The peasant’s revolt of 1381 was also the outcome of this plague as decrease in population due to the pandemic, made shortage of labor and high wages. It affected in artistic and cultural manners as well.

The plague returned to England in 1361-62, causing death of 20% population and it continued to return in 14^th and 15^th century as well. The great plague of London in 1665-66 was the last outbreak of this plague named as the Black Death or Bubonic Plague. 

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Norman Conquest and its Influence on English Language

The Conquest:-

The most important event having greater effect on English Language is Norman Conquest. It was occurred in 1066. English Language would have not been able to achieve the respect it has in today’s era as it is called “Lingua Franca” and the language would have remained only a Germanic language if this event had not been occurred in the past.

In the year 1066, after the death of England’s King Edward, the Confessor who died childless, Harold, Son of Godwin (Godwin was one of nobles of that time and principal advisor of Edward), was elected as new King. The duke of Normandy and second cousin of late king, William challenged the throne of Harold. Edward had given hope to William of becoming king on William’s visit to England. This dispute of throne ended on a battle on a place called Hastings. This is the reason that this battle is also termed as “Battle of Hastings”.  

Harold came before William and set his forces on broad hill at Senlac which is near Hastings and started waiting William’s forces. At about 9 O’ clock, the battle was started. Harold and his forces with advantage of their top position provided tough time to William’s one and compelled them to move backward. William, who was a wise man, realized that if he continued to fight with this position, he would have lost the battle soon. He moved backward pretending that he was going back by accepting his defeat. This movement trapped Harold and he came downward with his force which became the cause of their defeat. When they came to the bottom of hill, William with his force attacked them with more power than before. This time they couldn't defend and they faced the defeat with Harold’s death. He received an arrow in his eye and died on the spot. After his death, William celebrated his victory and south-east of England was set ablaze. He was crowned as king of England and started ruling on it.     

Influences:-

Numerous French people were brought to England after the battle and were given important posts in government sectors by King. As they didn't have command on English, they continued to speak French and it became the language of upper class. On the other hand, English was being used by common people and this continued for a long-time. After a long period, upper class and common people started mingling with each other by intermarriages and social aspects. Due to this, at about 10,000 French words entered in English Language and 75% of them are still in use. As French was language of court, administration and culture, their words also came in English language such as jury, indict, royal, prose, melody etc.

Pronunciation of English was also changed. The fricative sounds in English [f], [s], [θ] (as in thin), and [∫] (shin), With the French influence, it distinguished their voiced counterparts [v], [z], [ð] (the), and [ʒ] (mirage).

Grammatically it was changed also. The old order of Adj+N was changed into French one, N+Adj.

It is truly said that because of the Norman Conquest, English Vocabulary is called as Cosmopolitan Vocabulary and this language is termed as International Language of the world. Otherwise, it would have remained as a Germanic Language.   

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